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Proconsul

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the primate genus, see <a href="Proconsul_(mammal)" title="Proconsul (mammal)">Proconsul (mammal)</a>.</div>

A proconsul was an official of <a href="Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> who acted on behalf of a <a href="Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a>. A proconsul was typically a former consul. The term is also used in recent history for officials with delegated authority.

In the <a href="Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, military command, or <a href="Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, could be exercised constitutionally only by a consul. Only two consuls served at a time, each elected to a one-year term. They could not normally serve two terms in a row; if a military campaign was in progress at the end of a consul's term, the consul in command might have his command <a href="Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">prorogued</a>, allowing him to continue in command. This custom allowed for continuity of command despite the high turnover of consuls. In the <a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, proconsul was a title held by a civil governor and did not imply military command.

In modern times, various officials with notable delegated authority have been referred to as proconsuls. Studies of leadership typically divide leaders into policymakers and subordinate administrators. The proconsul occupies a position between these two categories. Max Weber classified leadership as <a href="Traditional_authority" title="Traditional authority">traditional</a>, <a href="Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">rational-legal</a> (bureaucratic), and <a href="Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic</a>. A proconsul could be both a rule-following bureaucrat and charismatic personality. The rise of bureaucracy and rapid communication has reduced the scope for proconsular freelancing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

The Latin word prōconsul is a shortened form of prō consule, meaning "(one acting) on behalf of the consul."<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> It appears on inscriptions beginning in 135 BC.<a href="#cite_note-pauly-3">[3]</a> Ancient historians describe <a href="Quintus_Publilius_Philo" title="Quintus Publilius Philo">Quintus Publilius Philo</a>, the first proconsul, as acting prō consule for 326 BC.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Glare-5">[5]</a> For later proconsuls, the same sources use the shortened form.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Suetonius-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Glare-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</h2></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Politics of the <a href="Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

509 – 27 BC</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e2ce9d;">

<a href="Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Constitution</a> and development</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">Republican origins</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan reforms</a></li>

<li><a href="Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Augustan reforms</a></li></ul>

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<a href="Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a> and officials</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist">

Classical magistrates</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li>

<li><a href="Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li>

<li><a href="Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li>

<li><a href="Plebeian_tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian tribune">Plebeian tribune</a></li>

<li><a href="Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li>

<li><a href="Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li>

<li><a href="Legate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Legate (ancient Rome)">Legate</a></li></ul>

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Extraordinary magistrates</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li>

<li><a href="Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li>

<li><a href="Triumvir" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumvir">Triumvir</a></li></ul>

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Religious officials</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">Rex sacrorum</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li>

<li><a href="Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamines</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">Pontifices</a></li>

<li><a href="Augur" title="Augur">Augures</a></li>

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<li><a href="Quindecimviri_sacris_faciundis" title="Quindecimviri sacris faciundis">Quindecimviri</a></li></ul>

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Early magistrates</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Consular_tribune" title="Consular tribune">Consular tribune</a></li>

<li><a href="Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemvir</a></li></ul>

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<a href="Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Junior positions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Decemviri_stlitibus_judicandis" title="Decemviri stlitibus judicandis">Decemviri stlitibus judicandis</a></li>

<li><a href="Tresviri_capitales" title="Tresviri capitales">Tresviri capitales</a></li>

<li><a href="Triumvir_monetalis" title="Triumvir monetalis">Trimuviri monetales</a></li></ul>

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<a href="Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li>

<li><a href="Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">Senatus consultum</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">Senatus consultum ultimum</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Curiate_assembly" title="Curiate assembly">Curiate</a></li>

<li><a href="Centuriate_assembly" title="Centuriate assembly">Centuriate</a></li>

<li><a href="Tribal_assembly" title="Tribal assembly">Tribal</a></li>

<li><a href="Plebeian_council" title="Plebeian council">Plebeian</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Elections_in_the_Roman_Republic" title="Elections in the Roman Republic">Elections</a></li>

<li><a href="Contio" title="Contio">Contiones</a></li></ul>

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<a href="Roman_law" title="Roman law">Public law</a> and norms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist">

Courts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li>Iudicium populi</li>

<li><a href="Quaestio_perpetua" title="Quaestio perpetua">Quaestio perpetua</a></li></ul>

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Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li>

<li><a href="Collegiality" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li>

<li><a href="Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li>

<li><a href="Potestas" title="Potestas">Potestas</a></li>

<li><a href="Provocatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Provocatio">Provocatio</a></li></ul>

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Provincial administration</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul>

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A proconsul was endowed with full consular authority outside the city of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-pauly-3">[3]</a> <a href="Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> notes that this did not include the right to consult <a href="Auguries" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguries">auguries</a>: "Our ancestors would not undertake any military enterprise without consulting the auspices; but now, for many years, our wars have been conducted by pro-consuls and propraetors, who do not have the right to take auspices."<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

The position was created to deal with a constitutional peculiarity of the Roman Republic. Only a consul could command an army, but the high turnover of consuls could disrupt continuity of command. If a consul's term ended in the midst of a campaign, he could be <a href="Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">prorogued</a> and continue to command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24-10">[10]</a>

<a href="Quintus_Publilius_Philo" title="Quintus Publilius Philo">Quintus Publilius Philo</a> was one of two consuls for the year 327 BC. When his term expired at the end of the year, his army was in the midst of besieging the city of Neapolis (modern <a href="Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>). Rather than risk a change of command at such a delicate moment, the people voted that he should "conduct the campaign in place of a consul (prō consule)" after his term expired. Publilius thus became the first proconsul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23-11">[11]</a>

With territorial expansion beyond Italy and the annexation of territories as Roman provinces, the proconsul became one of two types of Roman provincial governors. The other was the <a href="Propraetor" class="mw-redirect" title="Propraetor">propraetor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Livy-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

In theory, proconsuls held delegated authority and acted on behalf of the consuls. In practice, a proconsulship was often treated as an extension of a consul's term. This extension applied only outside the city walls of Rome. It was an extension of the military command of the consul, but not of his public office.<a href="#cite_note-Livy-12">[12]</a>

As the number of <a href="Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> was increased, there was a need to increase the number of military commanders. The office of the <a href="Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> was introduced in 366 BC. The praetors were the chief justices of the city. They were also given imperium so that they could also command an army.<a href="#cite_note-Livy-12">[12]</a>

During the <a href="Second_Samnite_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Samnite War">Second Samnite War</a>, Rome increased the number of her legions. The position of propraetor was instituted. These were praetors whose imperium was extended and were given the task to command a reserve army. Propraetors had the power to command one army, whereas proconsuls had the power to command two armies.<a href="#cite_note-Livy-12">[12]</a>

In 307 BC, <a href="Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Rullianus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus">Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus</a>, who was consul the previous year, was elected as proconsul to conduct the campaign in <a href="Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnium</a>. During the <a href="Third_Samnite_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Samnite War">Third Samnite War</a> (298–290 BC) the consuls of the previous year, Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus and <a href="Publius_Decius_Mus_(consul_312_BC)" title="Publius Decius Mus (consul 312 BC)">Publius Decius Mus</a>, were given a six-month extension of their authority to carry on the war in Samnium. In 291 BC <a href="Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Gurges_(consul_292_BC)" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges (consul 292 BC)">Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges</a> had his command extended and to carry out mop up operations towards the end of the war. He defeated the <a href="Pentri" title="Pentri">Pentri</a>, the largest <a href="Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnite</a> tribe.<a href="#cite_note-Livy-12">[12]</a>

There were two republican proconsuls who did not previously hold the position of consul. During the <a href="Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> (218–201 BC) <a href="Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a> volunteered to lead the second Roman expedition against the <a href="Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a> in Spain. He was too young to have been a consul. He was made proconsul by a vote of the Popular Assembly. When Scipio left Spain after his victory in 205 BC, <a href="Lucius_Cornelius_Lentulus_(consul_199_BC)" title="Lucius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 199 BC)">Lucius Cornelius Lentulus</a> and <a href="Lucius_Manlius_Acidinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Manlius Acidinus">Lucius Manlius Acidinus</a> were sent as commanders without public office (sine magistratus). This was done because Manlius Acidinus had not been a consul before.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

As Rome acquired territory, the need for provincial governors grew. The province of <a href="Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicily</a> was created in 241 BC, while Corsica and Sardinia was created in 238 BC. In 227 BC, two praetors were assigned the administration of these two provinces. Two more praetors were added when the provinces of <a href="Hispania_Citerior" title="Hispania Citerior">Hispania Citerior</a> and <a href="Hispania_Ulterior" title="Hispania Ulterior">Hispania Ulterior</a> were created in 197 BC. After this, no praetors were added even when the number of provinces increased. It became customary to extend the authority of consuls and the praetors at the end of their annual terms. The provinces were assigned by lot to proconsuls and propraetors. The proconsuls were assigned the provinces which contained the larger number of troops.<a href="#cite_note-Livy418-15">[15]</a>

Under <a href="Lex_Sempronia_Agraria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Sempronia Agraria">Lex Sempronia</a>, enacted in 123 BC, the senate determined the allocation of the provinces before the next consular elections.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In 81 BC, <a href="Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sulla</a> added two praetors so that the two proconsuls and six propraetors could be assigned to govern the ten provinces Rome ruled at that time.<a href="#cite_note-Livy418-15">[15]</a> Sulla made the governorships annual and required the holder to leave the province within thirty days after the arrival of his successor.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

In 67 BC, <a href="Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> <a href="Lex_Gabinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Gabinia">received</a> extraordinary powers and an unprecedented multiyear proconsulship to deal with the problem of piracy. The "<a href="First_triumvirate" class="mw-redirect" title="First triumvirate">first triumvirate</a>" of <a href="Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, Pompey and <a href="Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a> also received multiyear proconsulships in 59 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a44-19">[19]</a> <a href="Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a> was also granted this power in 38 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Weigel,-20">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h2></div>

Under the Republic, consuls and proconsuls had raised and commanded armies loyal to themselves. <a href="Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, Rome's first emperor, replaced these essentially private armies with a standing imperial army. The consuls and proconsuls lost their military authority, but the titles retained considerable prestige.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45-21">[21]</a>

The provinces were divided between <a href="Imperial_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial provinces">imperial provinces</a>, which were under the jurisdiction of the emperor, and <a href="Senatorial_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatorial provinces">senatorial provinces</a>, which were under the jurisdiction of the senate. The imperial provinces were mostly the border provinces, where most of the legions were stationed. This allowed the emperor to retain control of the army. In the senatorial provinces, the governors were called proconsuls. Tenure was generally restricted to one year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a46-22">[22]</a>

According to <a href="Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The more important provinces, which could not with ease or safety be entrusted to the government of annual magistrates, [Augustus] reserved for his own administration: the rest he distributed by lot amongst the proconsuls; but sometimes he made exchanges, and frequently visited most of both kinds in person.<a href="#cite_note-Suetonius-8">[8]</a></blockquote>

Augustus decreed that the governors of the senatorial provinces would receive the title proconsul, regardless of whether they had served as praetor or consul. These were chosen by lot, with the result ratified by the Senate. In the imperial provinces, the emperors appointed governors who held the title of <a href="Legatus_Augusti_pro_praetore" title="Legatus Augusti pro praetore">legatus Augusti pro praetore</a>, or pro-praetor, regardless of what position they had held previously.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a46-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

A passage in the <a href="New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> notes that cases might be judged by a proconsul: "If therefore Demetrius and the artisans with him have a complaint against anyone, the courts are open, and there are proconsuls; let them bring charges there against one another."<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

<a href="Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a>, an early fifth-century imperial chancery document, mentions three proconsuls but no propraetors. These outranked vicars in precedence, though administratively they were subordinates like all governors. They governed the provinces of: Asia, comprising the central part of the western <a href="Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolian</a> coast; <a href="Achaea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (Roman province)">Achaea</a>, comprising the <a href="Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a> and most of <a href="Central_Greece_(geographic_region)" title="Central Greece (geographic region)">Central Greece</a>; and <a href="Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Africa</a>, the northern part of modern <a href="Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_leadership_theory">In leadership theory</h2></div>

Although "proconsul" is an official title only with respect to <a href="Magistrates_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Magistrates of ancient Rome">magistrates of ancient Rome</a>, the word has also been applied to various British, U.S., and French officials. In the modern context, it is rarely a compliment. The terms <a href="Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> (from Persian) and <a href="Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a> (from French) are both used in a similar way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

Despite the gulf between ancient and modern proconsuls, writer Carnes Lord has proposed a single definition to allow the phenomenon to be analyzed in the context of leadership theory: "delegated political-military leadership that rises in the best case to statesmanship."<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> historian John Benyon defines a proconsul as a leader with "semi-independent and extraordinary capacity to shape the periphery" of an empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a15-28">[28]</a>

Modern writing on leadership tends to stress the distinction between "administration" on the one hand and "policy" on the other. This emphasis can be traced to an essay by <a href="Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> written in the late 19th century. In earlier epochs, it was common for leaders to combine the two roles. Since this is no longer the case, specific terminology is required to describe such officials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1">[1]</a>

In his classic study, <a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> distinguished among three modes of legitimate governance: traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic. In the form of bureaucracy, the rational-legal mode is dominant in the modern world. But a modern proconsul may also resort to aristocratic, or charismatic, leadership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4-29">[29]</a>

In the <a href="Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, a proconsul was typically a former consul and thus an experienced commander-in-chief. Having held the Republic's highest office, he was a statesman as well as an administrator. Rome's <a href="Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician class</a> was prepared to exercise aristocratic leadership, both civil and military.

Several factors are said to limit the scope of proconsular authority in modern times. Democracies put the military under civilian authority and tend to avoid policymaking by military leaders. Modern government emphasizes bureaucracy and rulemaking, while the Romans were aristocratic. Finally, modern communications allows for greater central control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3-30">[30]</a>

Although transoceanic telegraph lines were laid by the mid-19th century, Lord describes the late 19th century as the heyday of British proconsular authority. <a href="George_Curzon%2C_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a> in India, <a href="Frederick_Lugard%2C_1st_Baron_Lugard" title="Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a> in Nigeria, <a href="Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a> in South Africa, and <a href="Evelyn_Baring%2C_1st_Earl_of_Cromer" title="Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer">Lord Cromer</a> in Egypt all took imperial initiatives that London approved only reluctantly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a14-31">[31]</a> As ruler of Japan and Korea after <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, U.S. General <a href="Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> consciously modeled himself on a Roman aristocrat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4-29">[29]</a>

The role of U.S. General <a href="David_Petraeus" title="David Petraeus">David Petraeus</a> and others in Iraq suggests a continued need for proconsular leadership, according to Lord.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a21-32">[32]</a> Modern technology makes communication easier than ever. But as email and <a href="PowerPoint" class="mw-redirect" title="PowerPoint">PowerPoint</a> presentations proliferate, clarity and intellectual discipline is lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord20124–6-33">[33]</a> Another factor is that civilian policymakers, whether on the spot or in the metropole, may lack the skills needed to manage military forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a21-32">[32]</a> Yet proconsuls are at best an ad hoc solution to a reoccurring problem. Managing a large territory in occupation or conflict requires a range of skills and the ability to deal with various organizations. No one is trained as a proconsul and the available administrators have experience in at most one relevant agency or service. During the <a href="Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, the U.S. attempted to deal with this issue by creating an integrated civilian-military command structure called Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a236-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_Empire">British Empire</h2></div>

British colonial officials sometimes referred to as proconsuls include <a href="Alfred_Milner" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Milner">Alfred Milner</a> in South Africa, <a href="George_Curzon%2C_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a> in <a href="British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>, <a href="Frederick_Lugard%2C_1st_Baron_Lugard" title="Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard">Lord Lugard</a> in <a href="Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, and <a href="Herbert_Kitchener%2C_1st_Earl_Kitchener" title="Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener">Lord Kitchener</a> in <a href="History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">Egypt</a> and <a href="Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> These leaders were able to take imperial initiatives even when the government in <a href="London" title="London">London</a> was reluctant. <a href="Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative and Unionist</a> governments were notably more tolerant of such freelancing than <a href="Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> governments were. These proconsuls ruled in the age of the transoceanic telegraph, so rapid communication did not end proconsular independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a14-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2></div>

Various American commanders and ambassadors have been referred to as proconsuls. Writer Carnes Lord discusses the following figures in the framework of proconsular authority:

<ul><li><a href="William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> in <a href="Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Insular Government of the Philippine Islands">the Philippines</a> (1900–1903)</li>

<li><a href="Leonard_Wood" title="Leonard Wood">Leonard Wood</a> in <a href="United_States_Military_Government_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government in Cuba">Cuba</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a> in <a href="Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> in <a href="First_Republic_of_Korea" title="First Republic of Korea">South Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Lansdale" title="Edward Lansdale">Edward Lansdale</a>, <a href="Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.</a>, <a href="Creighton_Abrams" title="Creighton Abrams">Creighton Abrams</a>, <a href="Ellsworth_Bunker" title="Ellsworth Bunker">Ellsworth Bunker</a>, and <a href="William_Colby" title="William Colby">William Colby</a> in <a href="South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Wesley_Clark" title="Wesley Clark">Wesley Clark</a> in <a href="Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a> in 1994–99</li>

<li><a href="Paul_Bremer" title="Paul Bremer">Paul Bremer</a> in <a href="Coalition_Provisional_Authority" title="Coalition Provisional Authority">Iraq</a> in 2003<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Petraeus" title="David Petraeus">David Petraeus</a> in <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> in 2004–08 and <a href="Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> in 2010–11<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133-37">[37]</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">Prorogatio</a>, the legal process of extending a Roman command</li>

<li><a href="Notitia_dignitatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Notitia dignitatum">Notitia dignitatum</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambassadors_and_envoys_from_Russia_to_Poland_(1763%E2%80%931794)" title="Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)">Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 2.

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_proconsul" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=proconsul">"proconsul"</a>. <a href="Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pauly-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pauly_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pauly_3-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/proconsul-e1009260#e1009270">"Proconsul"</a>. <a href="Brill's_New_Pauly" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill's New Pauly">Brill's New Pauly</a>. October 2006. Retrieved 3 May 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Acta Triumphalia (CIL I.p.45), Livy (4–41.10; 8.23.12), and Suetonius (Jul. 51.4)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Glare-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Glare_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glare_5-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFGlare1982" class="citation book cs1">Glare, P. G. W. (1982). "consul, 1c". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OJgaAQAAMAAJ">Oxford Latin Dictionary</a>. Oxford: Clarendon press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-958031-6</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Acta Triumphalia 24, CIL I.p.48

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Livy, 10.16.2

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Suetonius-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_8-1">b</a> C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Divus Augustus, 47.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Cic. Div. 2,76.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. 23–24.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 23.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Livy-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-4">e</a> Livy, The History of Rome, 8.22–23, 9.42, 410.16.1–2

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman antiquities, 17/18.4.5.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRichardson1986" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, J. S. (1986). Hispaniae: Spain and the development of Roman Imperialism, 218–82 BC. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–71.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Livy418-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Livy418_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy418_15-1">b</a> Livy, The History of Rome, 41.8.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Cicero, de provinciis consularibus oratio, 2, 7.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Cicero, pro Balbo 27, 61

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Cicero, Letters to Friends, 3.6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a44-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a44_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 44.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Weigel,-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Weigel,_20-0">^</a> Weigel, Lepidus: The Tarnished Triumvir

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. 24, 45.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a46-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a46_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a46_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 46.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Cassius Dio, Roman History, 53.13.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2019:38&version=nrsv">Acts 19:38</a>, NRSV.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Fairly, William, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjETH6V8lJYC">Notitia Dignitatum, Or, Register of Dignitaries</a>, Department of history of the University of Pennsylvania, 1899: Achaea, p. 4; Africa, p. 36; Asia, p. 16.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-viceroy" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=viceroy">"viceroy"</a>. <a href="Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLord2012" class="citation web cs1">Lord, Carnes (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Proconsuls-Delegated-Political-Military-Leadership-from-Rome-to-America-Today.php">"On Proconsular Leadership"</a>. The Montréal Review.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a15-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a15_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 15.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. 3–4.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 3.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a14-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a14_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a14_31-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 14.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a21-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a21_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a21_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 21.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord20124–6-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord20124–6_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012">Lord 2012</a>, pp. 4–6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a236-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a236_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 236.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKnight1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Knight, Alan (1999). "Britain and Latin America". In Porter, Andrew (ed.). The Oxford history of the British Empire. Vol. 3, The nineteenth century. Oxford University Press.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Dyer, Gwynne (2007). After Iraq. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 9.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. vii, 21, 67, 133.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFLord2012a" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Carnes (2012a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1107009618">Proconsuls: Delegated Political-Military Leadership from Rome to America Today</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-25469-4</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

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